Latin abbreviations are concise Latin-derived terms commonly used in academic writing to refer to sources, provide clarification or introduce examples. Examples include e.g. (for example), i.e. (that is), et al. (and others) and ibid. (in the same place). Despite their classical origins, they remain widespread across disciplines for their precision, brevity and alignment with scholarly conventions.
This blog post explains when and how to use Latin abbreviations effectively in academic writing. It covers 18 of the most common Latin abbreviations and terms such as e.g., i.e., et al., ibid. and cf., offers guidance from major style guides (APA, Chicago and MLA) and outlines best practices for clarity and consistency. It also provides tips on punctuation, formatting and how editing services can ensure correct and appropriate use before publication.
List of contents
- Purpose of Latin abbreviations
- Common Latin abbreviations
- Use of Latin abbreviations according to style guides
- When to use Latin abbreviations
- When not to use Latin abbreviations
- Professional editing services
- Tips
- FAQs
- Resources
Key takeaways
- Latin abbreviations add precision and formality when used appropriately.
- Common examples include e.g., i.e., et al., ibid., cf., supra and sic.
- APA limits Latin abbreviations to parentheses and footnotes; Chicago and MLA allow more flexible use.
- Most Latin abbreviations are not italicised in modern academic writing.
- Abbreviations like et al., i.e. and e.g. are followed by full stops.
- Avoid using Latin abbreviations at the start of a sentence or in titles.
- Consistency, audience awareness and discipline-specific norms should guide the use of Latin abbreviations.
What is the purpose of Latin abbreviations in academic writing?
Latin abbreviations improve clarity, support consistency and reinforce academic conventions. When used appropriately, they make scholarly writing more concise and precise. Despite their classical origins, Latin abbreviations remain common in academic disciplines across the humanities, sciences and social sciences.
Writers use Latin abbreviations to:
- Save space and avoid repetition: Abbreviations like et al. (and others) or ibid. (in the same place) prevent lengthy restatements of names or citations.
- Clarify relationships between ideas: Terms such as e.g. (for example) and i.e. (that is) help explain or illustrate points more clearly.
- Maintain a formal academic tone: Latin terms often signal rigour and convention, especially in footnotes and bibliographies.
- Conform to citation standards: Major style guides, including APA, MLA and Chicago, use Latin abbreviations to structure references and notes.
Common Latin abbreviations
Writers frequently use Latin abbreviations in academic texts to improve clarity, save space and signal scholarly convention. These abbreviations appear in both the main text and footnotes, and they often follow standardised forms set by citation styles such as APA, MLA and Chicago. Below is a list of the most common Latin abbreviations, including their meanings, examples of usage and English equivalents.
c. / ca.
- Latin origin: circa
- English meaning: approximately
- Example: The manuscript was written c. 1500.
- English equivalent: around/about
cf.
- Latin origin: confer
- English meaning: compare
- Example: Cf. Hobbes’s and Rousseau’s views on sovereignty.
- English equivalent: compare
e.g.
- Latin origin: exempli gratia
- English meaning: for example
- Example: The theory applies in many regions, e.g. South Asia and West Africa.
- English equivalent: for example
et al.
- Latin origin: et alia
- English meaning: and others
- Example: The study by Chen et al. (2019) presents new data.
- English equivalent: and others
etc.
- Latin origin: et cetera
- English meaning: and so on
- Example: The study analyses political systems — monarchies, republics, dictatorships, etc.
- English equivalent: and so on
ibid.
- Latin origin: ibidem
- English meaning: in the same place
- Example: Ibid., 211.
- English equivalent: None; cite the same source as previously cited.
i.e.
- Latin origin: id est
- English meaning: that is
- Example: He adopted a liberal stance, i.e. he supported individual rights over state control.
- English equivalent: that is
idem
- English meaning: the same person
- Example: idem, 76.
- English equivalent: None; cite the same author as previously cited.
infra
- English meaning: below / later in the text
- Example: See the discussion infra, section 4.2.
- English equivalent: see below
loc. cit.
- Latin origin: loco citato
- English meaning: in the place cited
- Example: Smith, loc. cit.
- English equivalent: in the previously cited location
N.B.
- Latin origin: nota bene
- English meaning: note well
- Example: N.B. This assumption only holds under specific conditions.
- English equivalent: take special note
op. cit.
- Latin origin: opere citato
- English meaning: in the work cited
- Example: Johnson, op. cit., 87.
- English equivalent: in the previously cited work
p. / pp.
- Latin origin: paginae
- English meaning: page / pages
- Example: See Smith, 2020, p. 23; Jones, pp. 45–47.
- English equivalent: page / pages
q.v.
- Latin origin: quod vide
- English meaning: which see
- Example: For further discussion, see Hobbes (q.v.).
- English equivalent: see that entry
sic
- English meaning: thus / so (used to indicate original text is reproduced exactly, even if erroneous)
- Example: ‘He claimd [sic] to have seen it happen.’
- English equivalent: original wording kept
supra
- English meaning: above / earlier in the text
- Example: See supra, note 3.
- English equivalent: see above
sv.
- Latin origin: sub verbo
- English meaning: under the word / see under the entry
- Example: See Oxford English Dictionary, sv. ‘sympathy.’
- English equivalent: see under the heading
viz.
- Latin origin: videlicet
- English meaning: namely / that is to say
- Example: Three principles are key — viz. autonomy, beneficence and justice.
- English equivalent: namely
vs.
- Latin origin: versus
- English meaning: against / in contrast to
- Example: The debate of realism vs. constructivism remains central.
- English equivalent: against / in contrast to
| Abbreviation | Latin origin | English meaning | Example in a sentence | English equivalent |
| c. or ca. | circa | approximately | The manuscript was written c. 1500. | around/about |
| cf. | confer | compare | Cf. Hobbes’s and Rousseau’s views on sovereignty. | compare |
| e.g. | exempli gratia | for example | The theory applies in many regions, e.g. South Asia, West Africa. | for example |
| et al. | et alia | and others | The study by Chen et al. (2019) presents new data. | and others |
| etc. | et cetera | and so on | The study analyses political systems — monarchies, republics, dictatorships, etc. | and so on |
| ibid. | ibidem | in the same place | Ibid., 211. | same source |
| i.e. | id est | that is | He adopted a liberal stance, i.e. he supported individual rights over state control. | that is |
| idem | idem | the same person | Idem, 76. | None; cite the same author as previously cited |
| infra | infra | below / later in the text | See the discussion infra, section 4.2. | see below |
| loc. cit. | loco citato | in the place cited | Smith, loc. cit. | in the previously cited location |
| N.B. | nota bene | note well | N.B. This assumption only holds under specific conditions. | take special note |
| op. cit. | opere citato | in the work cited | Johnson, op. cit., 87. | in the previously cited work |
| p. / pp. | paginae | page / pages | See Smith, 2020, p. 23; Jones, pp. 45–47. | page / pages |
| q.v. | quod vide | which see | For further discussion, see Hobbes (q.v.). | see that entry |
| sic | sic | thus / so | ‘He claimd [sic] to have seen it happen.’ | original wording kept |
| supra | supra | above / earlier in the text | See supra, note 3. | see above |
| sv. | sub verbo | under the word / see under the entry | See Oxford English Dictionary, sv. ‘sympathy.’ | see under the heading |
| viz. | videlicet | namely / that is to say | Three principles are key — viz. autonomy, beneficence and justice. | namely |
| vs. | versus | against / in contrast to | The debate of realism vs. constructivism remains central. | against / in contrast to |
Use of Latin abbreviations according to style guides
Academic style guides offer clear, and sometimes differing, recommendations for using Latin abbreviations. While many Latin terms remain common in scholarly writing, their acceptance and formatting depend on the guide in question. Below is a summary of how the three most widely used style guides — APA, Chicago (CMOS) and MLA — approach Latin abbreviations.
APA Style (7th ed.)
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association discourages excessive use of Latin abbreviations in the body of the text. APA prioritises clarity and plain English, especially for international and interdisciplinary readers.
- Permitted in parentheses only: Use abbreviations like e.g., i.e., etc. and vs. only within parentheses, tables, or footnotes.
- Correct: Many theories apply (e.g. social constructivism, realism).
- Incorrect: Many theories apply, e.g. social constructivism, realism.
- Write out in running text: Replace Latin with English equivalents when writing in the main body.
- Preferred: That is, the results were inconclusive.
- Avoid: i.e., the results were inconclusive.
- Use et al. in citations: Use et al. for works with three or more authors in both narrative and parenthetical citations. The term is not italicised and ends with a full stop.
- Example: (Lee et al., 2022)
- Avoid ibid., op. cit., and loc. cit.: These are not used in APA referencing.
Source: APA Style 6.29
CMOS (17th ed.)
Chicago distinguishes between notes-and-bibliography and author–date systems but permits a wider range of Latin abbreviations in both formats.
- Use in both text and footnotes: e.g., i.e. and etc. may appear in running text or parentheses, but Chicago recommends using commas after e.g. and i.e. in US English. UK editors may omit them.
- Footnotes and endnotes: ibid. is acceptable for repeated references in footnotes (though Chicago notes a preference for shortened citations in many cases).
- Example: Ibid., 45.
- Chicago no longer recommends op. cit. or loc. cit.
- Punctuation and style: Abbreviations like cf., et al. and etc. should not be italicised and are followed by a full stop (except sic and cf., which do not end with one unless at the end of a sentence).
- Use et al. in citations: As with APA, et al. is used for works with multiple authors in shortened citations and is not italicised.
Source: CMOS 7.55, 10.42, 14.34–14.40
MLA Style (9th ed.)
The MLA Handbook permits Latin abbreviations but emphasises consistency and intelligibility, particularly for student writing and digital formats.
- Allowed in main text: MLA allows Latin abbreviations such as e.g., i.e. and etc. in both prose and parenthetical citations, provided they do not hinder clarity.
- Italicisation: MLA uses et al. in citations, not italicised, with a full stop.
- Discouraged forms: MLA does not recommend using ibid., op. cit., or loc. cit. Instead, it prefers repeated full citations or shortened versions in footnotes and endnotes.
- In-text citation rules: Use et al. when citing works with more than two authors.
- Example: (Smith et al. 78)
Source: MLA Handbook 5.8, 7.3
When to use Latin abbreviations in academic writing
In summary, use Latin abbreviations when they enhance precision, reduce repetition or follow style conventions. Avoid them when plain English is clearer or when your style guide restricts their use.
Latin abbreviations can make academic writing more concise and formal but only when used appropriately. Style guides, disciplinary norms and context all influence when to use them. Here’s how to decide when Latin abbreviations are appropriate in academic writing.
Use when the abbreviation improves clarity or saves space
Latin abbreviations work well when they streamline your writing without confusing the reader.
- et al. is standard in citations with multiple authors: (Wang et al. 2021)
- e.g. and i.e. can clarify or expand on points, especially in brackets or footnotes.: Several theorists (e.g. Foucault, Derrida) argue otherwise.
Use in citations and footnotes, where they follow convention
Many Latin abbreviations are part of established citation practices, especially in the humanities and legal writing.
- ibid., supra and infra are often used in footnotes (in Chicago-style or legal writing) to avoid repetition.
- cf., loc. cit., and op. cit. appear in older or traditional referencing systems, though op. cit. and loc. cit. are largely discouraged in modern usage.
Use in parentheses and footnotes
In styles like APA, abbreviations such as e.g., i.e. and etc. should appear only in parentheses or tables.
- Correct (APA): Many techniques exist (e.g. scanning, close reading).
- Incorrect (APA): Many techniques exist, e.g. scanning, close reading.
When not to use Latin abbreviations in academic writing
In short, avoid Latin abbreviations when they reduce clarity, conflict with style guidelines, or add unnecessary complexity. Choose plain, reader-friendly language unless your field or format requires otherwise.
Latin abbreviations can add formality and brevity, but they are not always appropriate. Overusing them — or using them in the wrong context — can reduce clarity and alienate readers. To maintain accessible, professional writing, avoid Latin abbreviations in the following situations:
When writing for a general or interdisciplinary audience
If your readers may be unfamiliar with Latin terms, choose plain English.
- Use for example instead of e.g.
- Use and so on instead of etc.
When style guides discourage their use in running text
Some style manuals, especially APA, recommend using Latin abbreviations only in parentheses, tables or footnotes — not in prose.
- Incorrect: Many methods exist, e.g. scanning and annotating.
- Correct: Many methods exist (e.g. scanning and annotating).
- Better in prose: Many methods exist, such as scanning and annotating.
When clarity is more important than conciseness
If an abbreviation could confuse readers or interrupt flow, write it out.
- Avoid: He adopted a realist stance, i.e. he prioritised empirical evidence.
- Use: He adopted a realist stance — that is, he prioritised empirical evidence.
When writing informally or accessibly
Use plain English when writing blog posts, policy briefs or teaching materials. Latin abbreviations may appear overly formal or obscure.
When alternatives are clearer or more specific
Latin terms like etc. can be vague or imprecise. Replace them with a full list or a clearer alternative.
- Avoid: The report includes case studies from France, Germany, etc.
- Use: The report includes case studies from France, Germany and Spain.
Tips for using Latin abbreviations in academic writing
Using Latin abbreviations correctly helps maintain clarity, consistency and formality. Below are practical tips for spelling, punctuation, formatting and placement, based on academic style guides.
Use a full stop where required
- Always add a full stop after et al. (short for et alia), even though et is a full word.
- Correct: (Nguyen et al., 2022)
- etc., i.e. and e.g. also take full stops.
- Correct: Several forms exist, e.g. verse, prose and hybrid formats.
Do not italicise Latin abbreviations
By the rule of thumb, if a Latin word or phrase is included in the dictionary, they do not need to be italicised. Most style guides treat Latin abbreviations as standard English. Do not italicise them unless your guide or publisher requires it.
Use commas with e.g. and i.e. (in US English)
Chicago and APA place a comma after e.g. and i.e. in American English. In UK English, this is optional but increasingly common.
- US English: The results were inconclusive, i.e., no clear trend emerged.
- UK English: The results were inconclusive, i.e. no clear trend emerged.
Place Latin abbreviations correctly in citations
- et al. goes after the lead author’s surname in in-text citations: (Garcia et al. 2020)
- ibid. is used in footnotes (not in APA or MLA) to refer to the same source as the previous note.
Avoid starting sentences with abbreviations
Latin abbreviations at the beginning of a sentence can look informal or awkward. Rewrite the sentence using full words.
- Avoid: E.g., some critics disagree.
- Use: For example, some critics disagree.
Keep sic in brackets and close to the error
Use [sic] immediately after a quoted error to indicate it is original. Do not italicise or omit the brackets.
- Correct: ‘The company claimd [sic] it had no record.’
Use cf., supra and infra in footnotes only
These are appropriate in legal or humanities scholarship but rarely in running text.
- Correct: See supra, note 3.
- Correct: Cf. Smith, Politics of Reform, 212.
Be consistent
Choose either Latin abbreviations or plain English and apply them consistently throughout your text. Follow the preferences of your style guide.
Professional editing services
Professional editing services can help prepare academic texts for publication, working towards essential goals — such as clarity, consistency, accuracy, coherence and conformity to academic norms. These goals directly affect how well a manuscript communicates its ideas, including its use of conventions like Latin abbreviations.
Developmental editing improves structure and argument; line editing enhances clarity and flow; copyediting enforces consistency and style compliance, and proofreading ensures final accuracy.
Clarity
A developmental editor helps clarify the structure and logic of an argument across the whole manuscript. A line editor improves clarity at the sentence level, smoothing phrasing and ensuring ideas are communicated with precision.
- Line editors may replace unclear or excessive uses of e.g. or i.e. with more readable alternatives.
- Developmental editors may restructure entire sections where reliance on Latin terms obscures meaning.
Consistency
A copyeditor ensures consistent spelling, punctuation, capitalisation and abbreviation use across the manuscript. They apply your chosen style guide (such as APA, Chicago or MLA) consistently.
- For example, copyeditor ensures et al. is always formatted correctly, punctuated and unitalicised (unless otherwise specified).
- They also check that Latin terms like i.e., e.g. and etc. are used consistently and not mixed arbitrarily with their English equivalents.
Accuracy
A proofreader performs the final check before submission or publication, catching typographical, grammatical or formatting errors. A copyeditor may also verify proper usage and placement of Latin abbreviations during earlier stages.
- A proofreader will correct misspellings like ie instead of i.e. or identify incorrect punctuation (such as missing full stop after et al.).
- A copyeditor may flag misused Latin terms such as ibid. used in APA texts, where it is not allowed.
Coherence
Developmental editors address flow and organisation at the level of argument and chapter structure, while line editors ensure clarity and rhythm at the sentence level.
- Line editors revise awkward or over-condensed sentences that overuse Latin abbreviations.
- Developmental editors may suggest reducing the use of abbreviations across sections to improve accessibility for a broader academic audience.
Conformity to academic standards
Copyeditors apply the rules of style guides, while proofreaders check final consistency and formatting before submission. Both ensure the text meets disciplinary and publication standards.
- A copyeditor removes outdated Latin terms discouraged by the style guide (op. cit., loc. cit.) and replaces them with correct short citations.
- A proofreader checks final formatting to ensure all abbreviations align with journal or publisher requirements.
FAQs on Latin abbreviations in academic writing
Is there a difference in the use of Latin abbreviations between US and UK English?
Yes. The main differences are in punctuation and placement:
- In US English, a comma often follows e.g. and i.e. (e.g., ‘Many factors, e.g., climate and trade, affect outcomes’).
- In UK English, the comma is optional and often omitted (‘Many factors, e.g. climate and trade, affect outcomes’).
- US style guides like APA prefer using Latin abbreviations only in parentheses or notes, whereas UK academic styles may use them more freely in running text.
Should Latin abbreviations be italicised?
No, not in modern academic writing. Abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., etc., et al. and ibid. are considered standard English terms and appear in roman type, not italics. Italics may only be required in very specialised contexts, such as classical studies or legal texts.
What is the difference between e.g. and i.e.?
- e.g. means ‘for example’ and introduces one or more examples.
- Example: ‘Many genres (e.g. poetry, drama) are taught in schools.’
- i.e. means ‘that is’ and is used to clarify or restate something.
- Example: ‘He is a polymath, i.e. someone with expertise in many fields.’
Do all style guides allow ibid. and op. cit.?
No. APA and MLA have phased out ibid. and op. cit. in favour of full or shortened citations. Chicago still allows ibid. in notes, but even there shortened citations are increasingly preferred.
Is there a rule about starting sentences with Latin abbreviations?
Yes. Avoid starting a sentence with abbreviations like e.g. or i.e.. Instead, write out the English equivalent.
- Avoid: ‘E.g., some theories reject this approach.’
- Better: ‘For example, some theories reject this approach.’
How do I punctuate et al.?
- Always include a full stop after al. because it is an abbreviation of alii.
- Correct: ‘According to Chen et al. (2019)…’
- Incorrect: ‘According to Chen et al (2019)…’
Is it acceptable to use etc. in academic writing?
Yes, but sparingly. Use etc. only when the omitted items are obvious or when listing more examples would be redundant. Avoid it in formal argumentation where precise detail is needed.
What are some Latin abbreviations used mainly in footnotes?
Terms like ibid., idem, infra, supra, and cf. are typically reserved for footnotes or endnotes, not the main body of the text.
Which Latin abbreviations are considered outdated?
Op. cit. and loc. cit. are now considered outdated in most citation styles. Modern guides favour shortened citations with author name and title or use of ibid. or full references instead.
What are the most misused Latin abbreviations?
Common errors include:
- Confusing e.g. (for example) with i.e. (that is)
- Omitting the full stop in et al.
- Using ibid. where not permitted (e.g. in APA or MLA)
- Italicising abbreviations that should be in roman type
- Using etc. after e.g. (redundant)
Can Latin abbreviations be used in titles or headings?
Avoid Latin abbreviations in titles, headings and abstracts. Most style guides recommend spelling out phrases for clarity and searchability.
Are there alternatives to Latin abbreviations for accessibility?
Yes. For clearer communication — especially with non-specialist readers — consider replacing Latin terms with English equivalents, such as:
- that is for i.e.
- for example for e.g.
- and others for et al.
Resources
- APA Style Abbreviations (7th ed.) Latin Abbreviations
- New Hart’s Rules (part of the Oxford Style Manual) provides UK English conventions for punctuation, abbreviation and Latin usage.
- Purdue OWL (Online Writing Lab) is a free, reliable online resource covering academic writing across disciplines and styles (APA, MLA, Chicago).
- Stylish Academic Writing by Helen Sword encourages clarity and readability in scholarly writing.
- The Craft of Research by Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb and Joseph M. Williams offers guidance on citation, evidence and formality.
- The Elements of Style by William Strunk and E. B. White is a concise, classic guide to clear and correct writing.
- The Sense of Style by Steven Pinker combines grammar with cognitive science. It addresses academic conventions and the importance of clarity.
- They Say / I Say by Gerald Graff and Cathy Birkenstein teaches writers how to structure arguments and cite effectively.
- UNC Writing Center Latin Terms and Abbreviations
Conclusion
Latin abbreviations are helpful in academic writing but only when used clearly, consistently and in accordance with the relevant style guide. Writers should apply them purposefully — never out of habit or to obscure meaning — and always consider their audience. With careful editing and attention to style, these terms can enhance clarity and brevity in academic texts.
Contact me if you are an academic author looking for editing or indexing services. I am an experienced editor offering a free sample edit and an early bird discount.
